Five forms of manipulation by online platforms

YouTube, Facebook and Instagram have considerable influence over the information we receive and how we see the world. "The three online platforms are run by just two US tech giants, Google and Facebook," says Bits of Freedom's Esther Crabbendam. But how much do we actually know about how these platforms work? And how can you make such a complex subject accessible to a wide audience?

Holly Robbins, researcher at Eindhoven University of Technology, was asked by Bits of Freedom to investigate how online platforms manipulate our information landscape. Because Google and Facebook are very secretive about the algorithms they use, Robbins began by carrying out a literature study and reading interviews with former platform designers. She also performed a design analysis to study how platforms' design choices influence user behaviour. The work involved cooperating with various partners, including AlgorithmWatch, a Berlin-based organisation dedicated to dissecting the algorithms used by platforms. Like Bits of Freedom, AlgorithmWatch is supported by SIDN Fund and Adessium. 

Taxonomy of online platforms

Robbins' research resulted in a taxonomy of online platforms, distinguishing five forms of manipulation.

1. Profiling – This form of manipulation involves the large-scale collection of user data on the platform and beyond. By combining datasets, the platforms build detailed profiles of their users, enabling the micro-targeting of advertising and the presentation of content that is likely to appeal to the individual. Profiling has implications both for user privacy and for wider society.

2. Prioritisation – Algorithms also decide what information should be displayed most prominently. Generally speaking, sensational and extreme content gets greater prominence, and posts by famous people with large numbers of followers and 'likes' get more exposure than those by 'ordinary' people. Users and content producers are therefore encouraged to adopt extreme positions, with implications for the social climate.

3. Censorship – Censorship is a product of a platform's moderation policy. Censorship is realised by a combination of artificial intelligence and human moderators who look at posts reported by other users. Users whose posts are taken down typically receive little or no explanation from the platform and have very little scope for appeal.

4. Dark patterns – Some platform design features have the effect of encouraging or discouraging certain forms of behaviour. Examples include default settings that minimise privacy and making 'share' buttons more visible or attractive while hiding less desirable functionalities in dropdown menus. Platform designers seek to encourage users to remain on the platform for as long as possible and to share as much content as possible.

5. Self-manipulation – The final form of manipulation involves the users themselves changing as a result of exposure to social media. People start to exhibit patterns of behaviour that are rewarded by the platform's algorithm: expressing opinions in a pointed style, adopting poses that will get 'likes', and always looking out for photo opportunities with Instagram in mind.

Short Course on Manipulation

With a view to demonstrating how the five forms of manipulation influence society, Bits of Freedom interviewed a number of people with relevant experience. Robbins' research and the interviews will form the basis for the next phase of the project, Crabbendam explains. "We want to inform the public and help protect them against manipulation by online platforms." In February 2021, Bits of Freedom will therefore present a Short Course on Manipulation: an accessible e-learning course designed for a wide audience. It will provide information about the five forms of manipulation, relay telling quotes from the interviews and suggest things people can do to counter manipulation.

In addition, the research will be summarised in a concise report for policy-makers, activists and researchers. "The intention is to get the report translated into English and share it with EDRi, an organisation that lobbies at the European level for the protection and reinforcement of digital citizens' rights," says Crabbendam. The Short Course on Manipulation will also be translated and made available to any digital citizens' rights organisations that want to use it locally. "Manipulation by Google and Facebook isn't something that we can tackle on our own. It's going to take a broad, international, popular movement."